Courtesy of Elizabeth McDonald, Professor at MIT
In Colombia, approximately 60% of gold extraction comes from artisanal and small-scale gold miners (ASGM), informal sector workers that uphold a massively lucrative and dangerous industry. In 2022, Colombia exported 70.7 tons of gold valued at $2.59 billion. This made gold Colombia's fifth largest export, after crude oil, coal, coffee, and refined oil. However, as of 2024, 80% of the gold exported from Colombia, valued at $1.7 billion, is illegal—and for a good reason.
Government-approved legal mining requires miners to formalize their operations according to government-mandated environmental and technical requirements. However, the bureaucratic red tape and high costs associated with formalization exclude many, particularly ASGM and small community miners. This exclusion leads them to conduct mining operations without the necessary permits, adherence to environmental and technical standards, and proper safety precautions.
As a result, illegal gold mining is the most widespread and insidious environmental crime affecting Colombia and other Amazon-bordering nations in Latin America. Deforestation, water contamination, and the diversion of river flow all result from illegal mining practices that frequently use toxic substances such as mercury and cyanide, which pollute the land, water, and air and have devastating consequences for all life.
In Chocó, the department bordering Antioquia's western perimeter, only one investigation has been conducted in the last six years to measure the dangerously high levels of mercury pollution in rural populations. The 2018 National Water Study estimated that 183 metric tons of mercury were dumped into Colombia's waterways. According to a report by the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC), between 2017 and 2022, 37.9 tons of mined gold were officially recorded in Chocó. However, the total is likely much higher when considering illegally mined gold. For each gram of gold produced, 7 to 30 grams of mercury are used for processing purposes, which means nearly 265 tons were used solely for the gold reported in the last five years.
In Antioquia, Nariño, and Cauca, no such reports have been made or appear to be underway. Female ASGM in these departments are called "Chatarreras," women not recognized as official workers by the Colombian government and thus not allowed into mines; they must scavenge and collect rocks or tailings discarded by male miners and clean the materials through informal, but nature-degrading panning in riverbeds. Many ASGM workers resort to this illegal practice that simultaneously jeopardizes their health and safety and harms the environment. Chatarreras, who make up about 17% of all ASGM workers, are particularly vulnerable in this sector. Operating in unregulated, peripheral zones or sifting through discarded minerals left by male miners, these women face lower earnings, gender-based violence, reproductive health challenges, and gender discrimination.
Despite the dangers, mining is more than a way to make ends meet for some. It "means being known as ancestral and subsistence mining women," says Miriam, an ASGM from Nechí, Antioquia, who adds, "We sometimes learn it from our mothers, our fathers, our grandparents, and we continue in that same line." Miriam's words emphasize the cultural significance of mining as a way of life passed down through generations of Colombian miners–a way of life that is being exploited and destroyed.
Female ASGM workers bear the brunt of the industry, as their field of work intersects with their culturally assigned gender roles and gender-based responsibilities. The typical day for a mining woman "is getting up very early, preparing food, preparing the children for school so that she can leave for work if she has one,” says Miriam. “From there, leave [at] seven or eight in the morning to the workplace, with many difficulties because you have to cross rivers, you have to walk; you have to find another vehicle, for example, like a motorcycle, [or] canoes." Concerns regarding childcare and transportation insecurity are the first among the women who go to extreme lengths to ensure the safety and well-being of their families.
Still, obstacles at their work sites are even more pressing, if not life-threatening: "Arriving at the work site and standing at the cut, if we are alone. [We have to] ask for permission and [deal with] all those little things that appear daily, which sometimes are many obstacles, where one experiences violence [and] abuse." Miriam remarks. Given the informal nature of the industry, gender-based violence, abuse, and coercion is highly underreported, if brought to light at all. Regardless, research shows a damning need for gender equality, which, if improved, would drive economic and social improvement.
In 2020, the Mineras Mujeres Unidas de Colombia (MMUC) was founded in partnership with MIT D-Lab, led by Associate Director Libby McDonald, to advocate for the rights and visibility of female ASGM in Antioquia. Facing significant challenges such as gender-based violence, reproductive health issues, and economic discrimination, women in this area are fighting for their place in an industry dominated by informal and illegal practices and men. During the National Conference of Women Artisanal Miners in 2022, hosted in collaboration with MIT D-Lab and Naples Prime, MMUC defined the formalization of their members and the commercial and social registration of their organization as a top priority for their movement. Working alongside Colombian partners, including Universidad Nacional and the Alliance for Responsible Mining (ARM), the MMUC continues to push for the formal recognition and protection of female miners across Colombia.
In the summer of 2024, the MMUC and MIT D-Lab began researching green bonds and carbon credits as an alternative way to achieve the organization's goals. The green bond market has emerged as a critical component of the global climate economy, aimed at financing projects with environmental benefits. These bonds attract investment in renewable energy, energy efficiency, clean transportation, and other sustainability initiatives. As of June 2024, green bonds are projected to have a uniquely successful year, with estimates suggesting global issuance could reach $950 billion. Some forecasts even predict that it could surpass the $1 trillion mark.
Despite their benefits, the green bond market often excludes vulnerable communities. The issuance and deployment of green bonds frequently favor large-scale projects that are out of reach for smaller, community-based initiatives. This exclusion is due to several factors, including stringent certification processes, high transaction costs, and complexity in monitoring and reporting requirements. Consequently, marginalized groups struggle to access these funds, particularly in developing countries, leaving them without crucial support for local environmental projects. Similar to global trends, Colombia's green bond market faces challenges with inclusivity.
While Colombia's National Development Plan aims to revitalize critical sectors and address social, economic, and sustainability issues, it fails to address smaller communities like the eight mining territories in which MMUC chapters are currently located. Similarly, global initiatives like the United Nations' REDD+, which champion climate change mitigation projects through state governance, require vast amounts of land for a single project to be economically successful. In addition, these initiatives exploit the native communities that carry out the labor needed for the success of green projects. Often, local communities and indigenous peoples do not have the legal rights to forest territories, mining territories, or even the very land upon which they live, making their share of the profits significantly smaller.
Despite these challenges, the women of MMUC remain hopeful that alternative economic mechanisms can be created. Dina, treasurer of the MMUC and a miner from Santa Rita-Andes, Antioquia, notes, "One of the goals is to publicize the co-design workshops that [MIT D-Lab] has trained us to facilitate and to help more women join our women's association." The MMUC currently has chapters in eight municipalities and members from territories across Colombia. With growing strength, the association wants to tap into the green bond market for prolonged economic growth, environmental sustainability, and gender equality. "[We see] power in the future; why not have an alternative job for all those women who cannot do a job in the mine due to [difficulties in] the territory or because of age, whatever it may be, they cannot do it? It would be very good to have a job for them, another alternative job," concludes Dina. Green bond financing has the potential to create a green-collar job industry for the women of the MMUC, developing sustainable environmental practices and technologies to mitigate and restore the damage caused by illegal gold mining while ensuring the safety of women.
The MMUC has recognized the potential for creative capacity building in green bonds. While little research exists regarding community-led green bond-funded projects, this does not deter the group. McDonald is actively researching the mechanisms behind green bonds and their potential to create a sustainable environment for the women of MMUC, which, as Miriam points out, is to become formally "recognized mining women," in order to receive respectful treatment and equal access to work opportunities.